• Indus civilisation is one of the four earliest civilisations of the world along with the civilisations of Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) and China (Hwang Ho).
• The civilisation forms part of the proto-history of India and belongs to the Bronze age.
• In its mature form, the civilisation lasted between 2600-1900 BC. It can be divided into following sub-parts
Nomenclature of Indus Valley Civilisation
• Indus Valley Civilisation coined by John Marshall as it flourished along the Indus river.
• Harappan Civilisation after the first discovered site, Harappa.
• Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as most of the sites have been found along the Indus-Saraswati river.
Geographical Spread
• The civilisation covered parts of Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.
• Mundigak and Shortughai are the two sites located in Afghanistan.
• Western most site Sutkagendor on Makran coast. Eastern most site Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh.
Some New Discoveries
- Ganverivala in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mugal.
- Bhirrana oldest Harappan site has said to be the mounds at Bhirrana village on the banks of Ghaggar river.
- Rakhigarhi in Haryana by Amarendra Nath.
Town Planning
• A unique feature was the grid system i.e. streets cutting across one another at right angles, dividing the town into large rectangular blocks.
• The towns were divided into two parts: upper part or citadel and lower part,
• The fortified citadel on the Western side housed public buildings and members of ruling class
• Below the citadel on the Eastern side, lay the lower town inhabited by the common people.
• Underground Drainage System connected all houses to the street drains made of mortar, lime and gypsum. They were covered with either brick or stone slabs and equipped with 'Manhole. This shows developed sense of health and sanitation.
• The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) It was used for religious bathing Steps at either end leads to the surface. There were changing rooms alongside.
• The Granaries (Harappa) six granaries in a row were found in the citadel at Harappa.
• Houses were made up of burnt bricks. They were often two or more storeyed, with a square courtyard. They had tiled bathrooms.
• Lamp-posts were erected at regalar intervals. It indicates the existence of street lighting
Agriculture
• It was the backbone of the civilisation. The soil was fertile due to inundation in the river Indus and flooding.
• They used wooden ploughshare (World's first ploughed field at Kalibangan) and stone sickles for harvesting Iron was not known to them
• Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a feature in parts of Baluchistan. Canal irrigation was absent.
• Crops Produced wheat, barley, dates, peak sesamum, mustard, millet, rag, bajra and Jowar. At Lothal and Rangpur, nice huk were found Sugarcane was not known t Intius people.
• They were First to Produce Cotton in the world, which Greek called as Sindon fragment of woven cotton cloth was found Mohenjodaro,
Domestication of Animals
• They domesticated buffaloes, oxens, sheep asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, cats etc. Remains of Horse were found at Surkotad and of rhinoceros at Amri.
• Lion was not known to Indus people. Co was known to them but was not much important.
Trade
• Agriculture, industry and forest produce provided the basis for internal and external trade.
• Trade was based on barter system. Cons were not evident. Bullock carts and boar were used for transportation.
• Weights and measures were made of limestone, steatite etc, generally in cubical shape. They were in multiple of sixteen Decimal system was known to them.
• Several sticks inscribed with measure marks have been discovered. It indicates that linear system of measurement was in use.
• Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Iraq), Central Asia, Persa Afghanistan and Bahrain.
• Sumerian text refers to trade with Meluba (Indus), Dilmun (Bahrain) and Maka (Makran coast) stations. were two intermediate stations.
• Susa and Ur were mesopotamian sites where harappan scals were found.
• Lothal (artificial dockyard), Surkotada Daimahad were coastal towns of the civilisation.
Towns Associated with Different Industries
Daimabad Bronze industry. Lothal Factory for stone tools and metallic finished goods.
Balakot Pearl finished goods, bangle and
shell industry. Chanhudaro Beads and bangles factory. It was the only city without a citadel.
Major Exports were agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, steatite beads (from Chanhudaro), Conch-shell (from Lothal), ivory products, R copper etc.
Art and Craft
• Harappans used tools made of stone and bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper (from Khetri) with tin.
• Beads and jewellery of gold, silver and precious stone were made. Cotton fabrics were used in summers and woollen in winters.
• Pottery both plain (red) and painted (red and black) pottery was made. Pots were decorated with human figures, plants, animals and geometrical patterns and ochre was painted over it.
• Seals were made of steatite. Pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinocerous, goat and elephant are found on most of the seals. They marked ownership of property.
* Important Seals Pashupati seal found
• from Mohenjodaro and unicorn seal. Images Bronze image of dancing girl (identified as devadasi) and stone steatite image of a bearded man (both are obtained from Mohenjodaro).
• Terracotta Figurines Terracotta is the Fire baked clay. It was used to make toys, objects of worship, animals, toy-carts etc.
Religious Practices
• Chief Female Diety A terracotta figure where a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman, represents Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth).
• Chief Male Diety-Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne having three heads and two horns. He is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo and two deers appear at his feet.
• Lingam and yoni worship was prevalent. Trees (pipal) and animals (bull, birds, dove, pigeon) were also worshipped. No temples have been found, though idoltary was practiced.
• Indus people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets for protection against them.
• Fire altars are found at Lothal and Kalibangan. Evidence of snake worship is also found.
Swastika symbol was originated here.
Burial Practices
• General practice was placing the dead body in the North-South direction.
• Mohenjodaro Three forms of burial were Complete, Fractional and Post Cremation.
• Kalibangan Two forms of burial Circular and Rectangular Grave.
• Surkotada Pot burial, Dholavira Megalithic burial.
• Lothal Double burial.
• Harappa East-West axis; R-37 and H cemetery.
Script
• It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most represented.
• It was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line. This style is called Boustrophedon.
DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION
The Harappan culture flourished till about 1900 BC, then it began to decline. There is no unanimity among historians, regarding the exact reason for the decline of this urban civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture.
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